Appendix A

Elizabeth Murphy's List of Constructivist Characteristics


Elizabeth Murphy (1997), in her own review of the topic, did a synthesis and a summary of constructivist characteristics of learning and teaching. Following are her 18 characteristics:

    1. Multiple perspectives and representations of concepts and content are presented and encouraged.
    2. Goals and objectives are derived by the student or in negotiation with the teacher or system.
    3. Teachers serve in the role of guides, monitors, coaches, tutors and facilitators.
    4. Activities, opportunities, tools and environments are provided to encourage meta-cognition, self-analysis -regulation, -reflection & -awareness.
    5. The student plays a central role in mediating and controlling learning.
    6. Learning situations, environments, skills, content and tasks are relevant, realistic, authentic and represent the natural complexities of the 'real world'.
    7. Primary sources of data are used in order to ensure authenticity and real-world complexity.
    8. Knowledge construction and not reproduction is emphasized.
    9. This construction takes place in individual contexts and through social negotiation, collaboration and experience.
    10. The learner's previous knowledge constructions, beliefs and attitudes are considered in the knowledge construction process.
    11. Problem-solving, higher-order thinking skills and deep understanding are emphasized.
    12. Errors provide the opportunity for insight into students' previous knowledge constructions.
    13. Exploration is a favoured approach in order to encourage students to seek knowledge independently and to manage the pursuit of their goals.
    14. Learners are provided with the opportunity for apprenticeship learning in which there is an increasing complexity of tasks, skills and knowledge acquisition.
    15. Knowledge complexity is reflected in an emphasis on conceptual interrelatedness and interdisciplinary learning.
    16. Collaborative and cooperative learning are favoured in order to expose the learner to alternative viewpoints.
    17. Scaffolding is facilitated to help students perform just beyond the limits of their ability.
    18. Assessment is authentic and interwoven with teaching.